The measurement of the broadband induction electromagnetic response in the form of a complex function of frequency (FEM) or, alternatively, as a transient function of time (TEM) has been applied in geophysical exploration for 30 years or more. Broadband EM methods are used in exploration in two different ways: 1) to perform “soundings” wherein the objective is to map the earth conductivity as a function of depth, and 2) for “inductive prospecting” wherein the broadband response permits the detection and characterization of large highly conductive “ore bodies” at great depth. Until recently, broadband induction EM methods were not routinely applied for shallow exploration problems. The principles of the induction EM method require that as the geometric scale of the problem decreases, there must be a corresponding broadening of the frequency range of interest in FEM systems or, equivalently, shortening of the time interval of interest in TEM systems. At present only a few field instruments are available with the requisite bandwidth for effective application to sounding or prospecting in the shallow subsurface (< 30 m).

Elementary induction EM principles are also applied in metal detectors and as such they have enjoyed a long and successful history in applications such as utilities location and in the location of metallic mines. Metal detectors are typically optimized for detecting very small objects located within a few 10′s of cm from the surface. Recently, however, new induction EM instruments have been developed specifically for shallow metal detection and site characterization. These instruments have significantly increased the depth of detection for shallow-buried metallic objects and, at least in one case, they provide measurements at more than one frequency or time delay. These instruments are now widely applied for detecting and mapping shallow-buried metal objects including UXO.